The status of religious freedom in Africa varies from country to country. States can differ based on whether or not they guarantee equal treatment under law for followers of different religions, whether they establish a state religion (and the legal implications that this has for both practitioners and non-practitioners), the extent to which religious organizations operating within the country are policed, and the extent to which religious law is used as a basis for the country's legal code.

There are further discrepancies between some countries' self-proclaimed stances of religious freedom in law and the actual practice of authority bodies within those countries: a country's establishment of religious equality in their constitution or laws does not necessarily translate into freedom of practice for residents of the country. Additionally, similar practices (such as having citizens identify their religious preference to the government or on identification cards) can have different consequences depending on other sociopolitical circumstances specific to the countries in question.

Most countries in Africa legally establish that freedom of religion is a right conferred to all individuals. The extent to which this is enforced in practice varies greatly from country to country. Several countries have anti-discrimination laws which prohibit religious discrimination. Several countries, particularly in West Africa and Southern Africa, have a high degree of religious tolerance, both as enforced by the government, and as reflected by societal attitudes.^[1][2][3] Others, however, have significant levels of religious discrimination, either practiced by government apparatuses or by the general public.^[4][5] Groups facing significant levels of legal discrimination in Africa include Muslims (in majority Christian countries), Christians (in majority Muslim countries),^[6] Baháʼí Faith practitioners,^[7] Ahmadiyya Muslims (in Muslim countries),^[8] and Rastafarians.^[9] Additionally, some countries have significant levels of societal animosity against atheists.^[10] Some countries ban witchcraft.^[11][12] Several countries establish Islam as a state religion,^[13][14][15] and some countries with significant Muslim populations also have significant government oversight of Islamic practice in the country, up to and including the establishment of religious Islamic courts, which are most commonly used for family law.^[14][16] These courts are usually present in addition to secular courts,^[17][18] and typically have a subordinate role, although this is not always the case.^[19]

Several countries require that religious organizations register with the government,^[20][21] and some ban the establishment of religious political parties.^[22] Several countries provide funding for religious institutions and/or pilgrimages.^[23]

Religiously motivated violence is present in some countries, particularly ones that have a high level of political instability or active insurgencies.^[24][25]

Algeria

Freedom of religion in Algeria is regulated by the Algerian Constitution, which declares Islam to be the state religion (Article 2) but also declares that "freedom of creed and opinion is inviolable" (Article 36); it prohibits discrimination, Article 29 states "All citizens are equal before the law. No discrimination shall prevail because of birth, race, sex, opinion or any other personal or social condition or circumstance". In practice, the government generally respects this, with some limited exceptions.

Overview

The government follows a de facto policy of tolerance by allowing, in limited instances, the conduct of religious services by non-Muslim faiths in the capital which are open to the public. The small Christian and tiny Jewish populations generally practice their faiths without government interference, although there have been several instances where the Algerian government has closed non-Muslim places of worship, most recently from 2017-2019 during which time eighteen Christian churches have been forcibly shut down. The law does not recognize marriages between Muslim women and non-Muslim men; it does however recognise marriages between Muslim men and non-Muslim women. By law, children follow the religion of their fathers,^[26] even if they are born abroad and are citizens of their (non-Muslim) country of birth.

Angola

The Constitution of Angola defines the state as secular; it provides for freedom of conscience, religion, and worship, prohibits religious discrimination, and requires the state to protect churches and religious groups as long as they comply with the law.^[27] Christianity is the religion of the vast majority of the population, with approximately 40% following Catholicism and 40% following a Protestant denomination; 10% have no religious affiliation. There is also a small Muslim community, estimated at 80-90,000 adherents.^[27]

he Government has banned 17 religious groups in Cabinda on charges of practicing harmful exorcism rituals on adults and children accused of "witchcraft," illegally holding religious services in residences, and not being registered. Although the law does not recognize the existence of witchcraft, abusive actions committed while practicing a religion are illegal. Members of these groups were not harassed, but two leaders were convicted in 2006 of child abuse and sentenced to 8 years' imprisonment.^[11]

Benin

The Constitution of Benin establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religious thought, expression, and practice. Religious groups in Benin are allowed to set up private schools, but public schools are secular and must not teach religion.^[28]

Botswana

The Constitution of Botswana provides for freedom of religion, and the government enforces this practice at all levels.^[29]

Religious education is part of the curriculum in public schools; it emphasizes Christianity (the religion of roughly 70% of the population^[30]) but addresses other religious groups in the country. The constitution provides that every religious community may establish places for religious instruction at the community's expense. The constitution prohibits forced religious instruction, forced participation in religious ceremonies, or taking oaths that run counter to an individual's religious beliefs.^[29]

Burkina Faso

Article 31 of the Constitution of Burkina Faso states that Burkina Faso is a secular state.^[31]

Public schools do not offer religious instruction. Muslim, Catholic, and Protestant groups operate primary and secondary schools. Although school officials have to submit the names of their directors to the government and register their schools, religious or otherwise, the government does not appoint or approve these officials.^[32]

In 2022, over 20% of schools were closed due to terrorist actions.^[32]

Burundi

The Constitution of Burundi defines the state as secular; it also provides for freedom of conscience and religion, as well as prohibiting religious discrimination. The law requires religious groups to register with the Ministry of Interior (MOI) before operating.^[33]

Cameroon

The Constitution of Cameroon provides for freedom of religion and worship; there is no official state religion. Missionary groups are present and operate without impediment.^[34]

Several religious denominations operate primary and secondary schools; while public schools cannot teach religious education, private schools can do so.^[34]

Cape Verde

The constitution for freedom of religion and worship and protects the right of individuals to choose, practice, profess, and change their religion.^[35] The Catholic Church maintains a privileged position in national life; for example, in the past, the government provided the Catholic Church with free television broadcast time for religious purposes (an estimated 85% of the population of Cape Verde is Catholic).^[36]

In 2021, there were no reports of significant societal actions affecting religious freedom.^[35]

Central African Republic

The Constitution of the Central African Republic The constitution establishes the country as a secular state. It also provides for freedom of religion and equal protection under the law.^[37]

Students are not compelled to participate in religious education, and they are free to attend any religious program of their choosing. Although the government does not explicitly prohibit religious instruction in public schools, such instruction is not part of the overall public school curriculum, nor is it common.^[37]

In the past, witchcraft has been a criminal offense punishable by execution under the penal code, but with most sentences being 1-5 years in prison or a fine of up to $1,500 (817,836 CFA francs); individuals arrested for witchcraft were generally arrested in conjunction with another offense, such as murder.^[38]

Religious groups that the Government considered "subversive", a term not specifically defined by the government, are subject to sanctions by the Ministry of Interior. When imposing sanctions, the Ministry of Interior may decline to register, suspend the operations of, or ban any organization that it deems offensive to public morals or likely to disturb the peace. The Ministry of Interior may also intervene in religious organizations to resolve internal conflicts about property, finances, or leadership within religious groups.^[21]

Chad

Article 1 of the Constitution of Chad declares that the country is a secular state and "affirm the separation of the religions and of the State".^[39] However, some policies favor Islam in practice. For example, a committee composed of members of the High Council for Islamic Affairs and the Directorate of Religious Affairs in the Ministry of the Interior organizes the Hajj and the Umra. In the past the Association of Evangelical Churches criticized government-sponsored Hajj trips as eroding the traditionally secular stance of the country.^[40]

The government indirectly monitors Muslim activities through the pro-government High Islamic Council. The High Council, in coordination with the president, also has the responsibility of appointing the grand imam - a spiritual leader for all Muslims in the country who oversees each region's high imam and serves as head of the council. In principle, the grand imam has the authority to restrict proselytizing by other Islamic groups throughout the country, regulate the content of sermons in mosques, and exert control over activities of Muslim charities operating in the country. The Al Mountada al Islami and the World Association for Muslim Youth organizations were banned by the government for portraying violence as a legitimate precept of Islam. The government has also banned the Sufi religious group Al Faid al-Djaria for engaging in various practices deemed un-Islamic to religious authorities, such as the incorporation of singing and dancing into religious services.^[40]

Religious leaders have also been involved in managing the country's wealth. A representative of the religious community sits on the Revenue Management College, the body that oversees the allocation of oil revenues. The seat has rotated between Muslim and Christian leaders every 4 years.^[40]

Public schools conduct instruction in French, and public bilingual schools conduct classes in French and Arabic. The government prohibits religious instruction in public schools but permits all religious groups to operate private schools without restriction. The poor quality of Chad's educational system has prompted many Muslim families to look to Islamic schools as an opportunity for educating children who would otherwise have little or no access to formal schooling. Most large towns have at least one or two private religious schools. Although the government does not publish official records on school funding, many Islamic schools were commonly understood to be financed by Arab donors (governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and individuals), particularly from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Libya.^[40]

Comoros

The Constitution of the Comoros provides for freedom of religion, but the government limits this right in practice. In 2009, an amendment to the constitution established Islam as the state religion.^[13]

Foreigners caught proselytizing for religions other than Islam are subject to deportation. Citizens who convert away from Islam face shunning from society.^[41]

The constitution notes that the Grand Mufti of Comoros is appointed by the president, and will head the Supreme National Institution on Charge of Religious Practices. He will also advise the government on practices of Islamic law.^[41]

The tenets of Islam are taught in conjunction with the Arabic language in public and private schools, and at public pre-schools.^[41]

There is societal discrimination against non-Muslims citizens in some sectors of society.^[41]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and prohibits religious discrimination.^[42] However, violence between Muslims and other religious groups in the Congo, especially Congolese Christians, has been attested in North Kivu since 2014 in connection with the Allied Democratic Forces insurgency begun in neighboring Uganda.^[25] The Allied Democratic Forces, whose political ideology is based on Islamism, is widely suspected of having perpetrated the Beni massacre in August 2016.

The law provides for the establishment and operation of religious institutions and requires practicing religious groups to register with the government; registration requirements were simple and implemented in a nondiscriminatory manner. In practice unregistered religious groups operated unhindered.^[42]

Djibouti

Article 1 of the Constitution of Djibouti names Islam as the sole state religion, and Article 11 provides for the equality of citizens of all faiths and freedom of religious practice. The equality of citizens regardless of religion is also stressed repeatedly in other articles as well.^[22][43] The constitution also forbids religiously based political parties in Article 6.^[22]

According to the International Religious Freedom Report 2014, while Muslim Djiboutians have the legal right to convert to or marry someone from another faith, converts may encounter negative reactions from their family and clan or from society at large, and they often face pressure to revert to Islam.^[44]

In 2012, a law was passed that grants the Ministry of Religious Affairs increased oversight of Djibouti's mosques, including of messages disseminated during Friday prayers. By 2022, the Ministry of Islamic Affairs vetted all Friday prayer service sermons.^[45]

In 2014, the government issued a decree executing a law on state control of mosques which converted the status of imams into civil service employees under the Ministry of Islamic Affairs and transferred ownership of mosque properties and other assets to the government. The Secretary General of the Ministry of Religious Affairs stated the decree aims to eliminate political activity from mosques and provide greater government oversight of mosque assets and activities. Government officials also indicated the law was designed to counter perceived foreign influence in mosques.^[46]

According to article 23 of the Family Code, a non-Muslim man may marry a Muslim woman only after converting to Islam.^[47] Non-Islamic marriages are not legally recognized by the government, which only recognizes marriages performed in accordance with the Ministry of Islamic Affairs or the Ministry of the Interior.^[46]

Public schools are secular, although the Ministry of Islamic Affairs requires that a civic and moral education course (based on Islamic principles) must be taught; private schools must teach the same course.^[45]

Egypt

Constitutionally, freedom of belief is "absolute" and the practice of religious rites is provided in Egypt, but the government has historically persecuted its Coptic minority and unrecognized religions.^[48] Islam is the official state religion, and Shari'a is the primary source of all new legislation.^[49] Egypt's population is majority Sunni Muslims. Shi'a Muslims constitute less than 1 percent of the population.^[50] Estimates of the percentage of Christians range from 10 to 20 percent.^[50]

Treatment of Coptic Christians

Coptic Christians, an ethnoreligious group indigenous to Egypt, face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from a disproportional representation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches. Coptic Christians are minimally represented in law enforcement, state security, and public office, and are discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. In 2009, The Pew Forum ranked Egypt among the 12 worst countries in the world in terms of religious violence against religious minorities and in terms of social hostilities against Christians.^[5]

Treatment of Ahmadiyya Muslims

The Ahmadiyya movement in Egypt, which numbers up to 50,000 adherents in the country,^[8] was established in 1922^[51] but has seen an increase in hostility and government repression as of the 21st century. The Al-Azhar University has denounced the Ahmadis^[52] and Ahmadis have been hounded by police along with other Muslim groups deemed to be deviant under Egypt's defamation laws.^[53][54]

Treatment of Baháʼí

Egypt's government-issued ID cards have historically declared the holder's religion, but only the religions of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism were considered valid options by the government. As an unrecognized religious group that faced explicit government persecution for much of the 20th century, members of the Baháʼí Faith in Egypt (est. pop 2,000^[55]) historically would rely on sympathetic government clerks to get their ID cards marked with either a dash, "other", or Baháʼí.^[7]

As Egypt adopted an electronic ID system in the 1990s, Electronic processing locked out the possibility of an unlisted religion, or any religious affiliation other than Muslim, Christian, or Jewish. Consequently, adherents of any other faith (or no faith) became unable to obtain any government identification documents (such as national identification cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion. Baháʼís became virtual non-citizens, without access to employment, education, and all government services, including hospital care.^[56]

In a series of court cases from 2006 to 2008, judges ruled that the government should issue ID cards with a dash instead of religious affiliation for Baháʼí citizens.^[57] The issue is presumed to have been resolved as of 2009.^[57]

Treatment of atheists