The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward.^[1] Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the Senate) and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.^[2]

The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until the late third or early fourth century.^[3] The modern word "emperor" derives from the title imperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps.^[4] For example, Augustus's official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.^[5] The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of North Africa and the Middle East. Under the republic, the Senate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.^[6] The chief magistrates of the republic were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.^[7] Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.^[8]

After the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title "dominus noster" (our lord). The rise of powerful barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330, Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Historians consider the Dominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.^[9] For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division became permanent after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have traditionally dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.^[10]

The fall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from the de facto date of 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer, or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court.^[11] Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", oriented toward Hellenic culture and governed by the Byzantine emperors.^[a] Given that "Byzantine" is a later historiographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained Roman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.^[b] Under Justinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.^[15] Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to Anatolia and the Balkans.^[c] The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos at the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II.^[21][d] In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself kayser-i Rûm ("Caesar of the Romans"),^[e] thus claiming to be the new emperor,^[27] a claim maintained by succeeding sultans.^[28] Competing claims of succession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous later pretenders.^[29]

Legitimacy

While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.^[30] From the rise of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the sack of Rome in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder of Commodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with regicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by late antiquity.^[31] The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.^[32]

True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent, in the Roman Empire,^[31] and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army.^[33] Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.^[34] With the exception of Titus (r. 79–81; son of Vespasian), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death until Constantine I in 337. Control of Rome itself and approval of the Roman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed public enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the Year of the Four Emperors (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in the Roman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the Crisis of the Third Century (235–285). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.^[35]

Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.^[36] There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the Historia Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper Pescennius Niger (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by Septimius Severus (r. 193–211).^[37] This is also followed in modern historiography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.^[34]

List inclusion criteria

Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,^[38] this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:

• Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.^[39] From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,^[40] control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.^[41]
• Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.^[42] Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,^[43] but the same is not always applied during the early Empire.^[44] For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
• Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.^[45] In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of Constantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.^[46]

In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,^[47] an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.

Principate (27 BC – AD 284)

Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)

Julio-Claudian dynasty

Portrait	Name[f]	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Augustus Caesar Augustus	16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14   (40 years, 7 months and 3 days)[g]	Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the Roman Senate.	23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 (aged 75) Born as Gaius Octavius; first elected Roman consul on 19 August 43 BC. Died of natural causes[53]
	Tiberius Tiberius Caesar Augustus	17 September 14 – 16 March 37 (22 years, 5 months and 27 days)	Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus	16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 (aged 77) Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation of Caligula[54]
	Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	18 March 37 – 24 January 41 (3 years, 10 months and 6 days)	Grandnephew and adopted heir of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus	31 August 12 – 24 January 41 (aged 28) Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard and senators[55]
	Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	24 January 41 – 13 October 54 (13 years, 8 months and 19 days)	Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate	1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 (aged 63) Began the Roman conquest of Britain. Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favor of her son Nero[56]
	Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus	13 October 54 – 9 June 68 (13 years, 7 months and 27 days)	Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus	15 December 37 – 9 June 68 (aged 30) Committed suicide after being deserted by the Praetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the Senate[57]

Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)

Year of the Four Emperors

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Galba Servius Galba Caesar Augustus	8 June 68 – 15 January 69 (7 months and 7 days)	Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide, with support of the Senate and Praetorian Guard	24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69 (aged 71) Murdered by soldiers of the Praetorian Guard in a coup led by Otho[58]
	Otho Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus	15 January – 16 April 69 (3 months and 1 day)	Seized power through a coup against Galba	28 April 32 – 16 April 69 (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius[59]
	Vitellius Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus	19 April – 20 December 69 (8 months and 1 day)	Governor of Germania Inferior, proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition to Galba and Otho, later recognized by the Senate	24 September 15 – 20/22 December 69 (aged 54) Murdered by Vespasian's troops[60]

Flavian dynasty (69–96)

Flavian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Vespasian Caesar Vespasianus Augustus	1 July 69 – 23 June 79 (9 years, 11 months and 22 days)	Proclaimed by the eastern legions on 1 July 69 in opposition to Vitellius, later recognized by the Senate	17 November 9 – 23 June 79 (aged 69) Began construction of the Colosseum. Died of dysentery[61]
	Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus	24 June 79 – 13 September 81 (2 years, 2 months and 20 days)	Son of Vespasian	30 December 39 – 13 September 81 (aged 41) Died of natural causes[62]
	Domitian Caesar Domitianus Augustus	14 September 81 – 18 September 96 (15 years and 4 days)	Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian	24 October 51 – 18 September 96 (aged 44) Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involving Nerva[63]

Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)

Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Nerva Nerva Caesar Augustus	18 September 96 – 27 January 98 (1 year, 4 months and 9 days)	Proclaimed emperor by the Senate after the murder of Domitian	8 November 30 – 27 January 98 (aged 67) First of the "Five Good Emperors". Died of natural causes[64]
	Trajan Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus	28 January 98 – 7/11 August 117 (19 years, 6 months and 10/14 days)	Adopted son of Nerva	18 September 53 – 7/11 August 117 (aged 63) First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes[65]
	Hadrian Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus	11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (20 years, 10 months and 29 days)	Cousin of Trajan, allegedly adopted on his deathbed	24 January 76 – 10 July 138 (aged 62) Ended Roman expansionism. Destroyed Judea after a massive revolt. Died of natural causes[66]
	Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius[h]	10 July 138 – 7 March 161 (22 years, 7 months and 25 days)	Adopted son of Hadrian	19 September 86 – 7 March 161 (aged 74) Died of natural causes[68]
	Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus	7 March 161 – 17 March 180 (19 years and 10 days)	Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus Pius. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his son Commodus	26 April 121 – 17 March 180 (aged 58) Last of the "Five Good Emperors"; also one of the most representative Stoic philosophers. Died of natural causes[69]
	Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus	7 March 161 – January/February 169 (7 years and 11 months)	Adopted son of Antoninus Pius, joint emperor with his adoptive brother, Marcus Aurelius	15 December 130 – early 169 (aged 38) Died of natural causes[70]
	Commodus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus / Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus	17 March 180 – 31 December 192 (12 years, 9 months and 14 days)	Son of Marcus Aurelius. Proclaimed co-emperor in 177, at age 16, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime	31 August 161 – 31 December 192 (aged 31) Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving his praetorian prefect, Laetus, and mistress, Marcia[71]

Year of the Five Emperors (193)

Note: The other claimants during the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, generally regarded as usurpers.

Year of the Five Emperors

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax	1 January – 28 March 193 (2 months and 27 days)	City prefect of Rome at Commodus's death, set up as emperor by the praetorian prefect, Laetus, with consent of the Senate	1 August 126 – 28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by mutinous soldiers of the Praetorian Guard[72]
	Didius Julianus Marcus Didius Severus Julianus	28 March – 1 June 193 (2 months and 4 days)	Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor	30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193 (aged 60) Killed on order of the Senate, at the behest of Septimius Severus[73]

Severan dynasty (193–235)

Severan dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign	Succession	Life details
	Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax	9 April 193 – 4 February 211 (17 years, 9 months and 26 days)	Governor of Upper Pannonia, acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions following the murder of Pertinax	11 April 145 – 4 February 211 (aged 65) First non-European emperor. Died of natural causes[74]
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