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Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe | |
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 Logo
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| Secretariat | Vienna, Austria |
| Official languages | English, French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish |
| Type | Intergovernmental organization with no legal personality |
| Membership | 57 participating countries 11 partners for co-operation |
| Leaders | |
| Ian Borg | |
| Matteo Mecacci | |
| Teresa Ribeiro | |
| Kairat Abdrakhmanov | |
| Helga Schmid | |
| Establishment | |
| July 1973 | |
| 30 July – 1 August 1975 | |
| 21 November 1990 | |
• Renamed OSCE | 1 January 1995 |
| Area | |
• Total | 50,119,801 km2 (19,351,363 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 2022 estimate | 1.3 billion[1] (3rd) |
• Density | 25/km2 (64.7/sq mi) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate |
• Total | US$53.1 trillion[2] |
• Per capita | US$40,900 |
Website osce | |
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization comprising member states in Europe, North America, and Asia. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, the promotion of human rights, freedom of the press, and free and fair elections. It employs around 3,460 people, mostly in its field operations but also in its secretariat in Vienna, Austria, and its institutions.[3] It has observer status at the United Nations.[4]
The OSCE had its origins in 1975: its predecessors came together during the era of the Cold War to form a forum for discussion between the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc.[5] Most of its 57 participating countries are in Europe, but with some members in Asia or in North America. The participating countries comprise much of the land-area of the Northern Hemisphere.
The OSCE is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management, and post-conflict rehabilitation.
History
Roots
The Organization has its roots in the 1975 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). Talks had been mooted about a European security grouping since the 1950s but the Cold War prevented any substantial progress until the talks at Dipoli in Espoo began in November 1972. These talks were held at the suggestion of the Soviet Union which wished to use the talks to maintain its control over the communist states in Eastern Europe, and President of Finland Urho Kekkonen hosted them in order to bolster his policy of neutrality. Western Europe, however, saw these talks as a way to reduce the tension in the region, furthering economic cooperation and obtaining humanitarian improvements for the populations of the communist bloc.
The recommendations of the talks, in the form of "The Blue Book", gave the practical foundations for a three-stage conference called the "Helsinki process".[6] The CSCE opened in Helsinki on 3 July 1973 with 35 states sending representatives. Stage I took only five days to agree to follow the Blue Book. Stage II was the main working phase and was conducted in Geneva from 18 September 1973 until 21 July 1975.
The result of Stage II was the Helsinki Final Act. This was signed by the 35 participating states during Stage III, which took place in Finlandia Hall between 30 July – 1 August 1975. It was opened by the Holy See's diplomat Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, who was the chairman of the conference.
The concepts of improving relations and implementing the act were developed over a series of follow-up meetings, with major gatherings in Belgrade (4 October 1977 – 8 March 1978), Madrid (11 November 1980 – 9 September 1983) and Vienna (4 November 1986 – 19 January 1989).
The Copenhagen commitment was written "to ensure that individuals are permitted to exercise their rights to peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including the right to form, join and participate effectively in non-governmental organizations, which seek the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms."[7]
The Moscow Mechanism was agreed in 1991.[8]
CSCE becomes OSCE
The fall of the Soviet Union required a change of role for the CSCE.[why?] The Charter of Paris for a New Europe, signed on 21 November 1990, marked the beginning of this change. The process was capped by the renaming of the CSCE as the OSCE on 1 January 1995, in accordance with the results of a conference held in Budapest in 1994. The OSCE now had a formal secretariat, a Senior Council, a Parliamentary Assembly, a Conflict Prevention Centre, and an Office for Free Elections, which later became the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights.
In December 1996, the "Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century" affirmed the universal and indivisible nature of security on the European continent.
In Istanbul on 19 November 1999, the OSCE ended a two-day summit[9] by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya[10] and adopting a Charter for European Security.[9]
Through its Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), the OSCE observes and assesses elections in its member states, in order to support fair and transparent democratic processes, in keeping with the mutual standards to which the organization is committed; between 1994 and 2004 the OSCE sent teams of observers to monitor more than 150 elections, typically focusing on elections in emerging democracies.[11] In 2004, at the invitation of the United States Government, the ODIHR deployed an assessment mission, made up of participants from six OSCE member states, which observed that year's US presidential election and produced a report.[12] It was the first time that a US presidential election was the subject of OSCE monitoring, although the organization had previously monitored state-level American elections in Florida and California, in 2002 and 2003.[11]
Criticism of OSCE
Members of OSCE have criticised the organisation for being in a position where Russia, and sometimes Belarus, can veto all OSCE decisions, Moscow has, for a number of years, not allowed the approval of the organisation's budget, the organisation of official OSCE events or the extension of missions. In November 2023 they vetoed the appointment of Estonia as chairman from 2024.[13]
OSCE missions and operations
1992 Georgia Mission
The OSCE Mission to Georgia was established in November 1992 with its headquarters in the capital Tbilisi. The Mission's mandate expired on 31 December 2008. Between these dates it was powerless to control the outbreak of the August 2008 Russo-Georgian war.[14]
1993 Mission to Moldova
The objective of the mission to Moldova is to facilitate a comprehensive and lasting political settlement of the Transnistria conflict in all its aspects, strengthening the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic of Moldova within its internationally recognised borders with a special status for Transnistria.[15]
OSCE promoted a 5+2 format as a diplomatic negotiation platform, which began in 2005, suspended by Russia and Transnistria in 2006 until it started again in 2012, before making slow progress over the next ten years. The process stopped following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine as two of the parties were then at war with each other.
In December 2022 Russia blocked the renewal of the annual mandate by limiting it to a six month period, repeated again in June 2023 to another six month period.[16]
1995 Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Bosnian War concluded in 1995 with the Dayton Agreement with the ongoing OSCE Mission being mandated to helping to secure lasting peace and therefore to build a stable, secure, and democratic state through building sustainable democratic institutions, strengthening good governance and human rights principles, and supporting the development of a multi-national and multi-ethnic democratic society.[17]
1998 Kosovo Mission
The OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission was established by the Permanent Council in October 1998 and shuttered in June 1999 amidst the recalcitrance of the Milosevic regime.[citation needed]
The 1999 OSCE Mission in Kosovo took over the work in Kosovo where it concentrates on institution and democracy building, as well as human rights.
The OSCE's refusal to police events surrounding the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence still rankles in Russia.[18]
2001 Mission to Macedonia
The ongoing Mission to Macedonia is monitoring and supporting the implementation of the Ohrid Framework Agreement that put an end to the 2001 armed conflict in North Macedonia.
2001 Mission to Serbia
The current mission to Serbia started after Slobodan Milošević lost his power as President of Serbia and Montenegro in 2000. The mission was mandated to assist the authorities and civil society with democratic development and human rights protection, including the rights of persons belonging to national minorities. To promote democratisation, tolerance and the rule of law.[19]
2006 Mission to Montenegro
The current mission began with the 2006 Montenegrin independence referendum, monitored by OSCE, with a mandate being granted with the objective of assisting and promoting the implementation of OSCE principles and commitments including the politico-military and human aspects of security and stability.[20]
2012 Texas election
Before the U.S. presidential elections of November 2012, the OSCE announced its intention to send electoral observers to Texas and to other U.S. states. This prompted the Attorney General of Texas Greg Abbott to send letters to U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and to the OSCE,[21] threatening to arrest OSCE officials if they should enter electoral premises in Texas and break Texas law.[22] In reply, the U.S. Department of State stated that OSCE observers enjoyed immunities.[23] In the event, no incidents between OSCE and Texas authorities were recorded during the elections.
2017 Turkey constitutional referendum
In April 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan criticized the OSCE for reporting that opposition "No" campaigners in the Turkish constitutional referendum had faced bans, police interventions and arrests. Erdoğan said: "Now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe says if the result is 'yes', that means there are a lot of problems. Who are you? First of all, you should know your place. This is not your duty."[24][25][26]
OSCE involvement in Ukraine (2014–2021)
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On 21 March 2014, the OSCE deployed its Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine at the request of Ukraine's government.[27] The mission has received mixed reviews. While some observers have applauded its function as the "eyes and ears of the international community",[28] others have accused the mission of bias towards either Russia or Ukraine.
On 27 April 2014, the Girkin group that had taken control in the city of Sloviansk took eight members of the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission (OSCE SMM) as hostages.[29] The group appointed Vyacheslav Ponomarev as mayor of the city.
During the war in Donbas, an OSCE observer allowed Russian separatists to travel in a vehicle with the organization's markings; this prompted allegations that the OSCE was biased in the war and not interested in carrying out its duties of mediating a ceasefire. The organization issued a statement regretting the incident.[30]
Moreover, the OSCE Observer Mission at Russian Checkpoints Gukovo and Donetsk (which is organizationally separate from the Special Monitoring Mission) also received criticism alleging that only two checkpoints on the Russian–Ukrainian border are currently being monitored, which Daniel Baer, the US ambassador to the OSCE at the time, described as "seriously inadequate".[31]
The mission has been criticized for taking months to deploy drones to help monitor borders as well as withdrawing them after only several weeks of use due to Russian electronic attacks. Drones have been reintroduced to observe the conflict in 2018.[32]
In 2014, an advisor to the Ukrainian Ministry of Defence wrongly claimed that approximately 80% of the OSCE observers located near Mariupol were Russian citizens and that many had ties to Russian security agencies such as the FSB and the GRU. In reality, one observer out of 17 in Mariupol was a Russian citizen.[33] In total, the mission reports the number of Russian citizens in its ranks as 39 out of 720, or 5,4%.[34] The organization has also been accused of allegedly revealing the locations of Ukrainian troops to Russian forces during the conflict.[35][36][37][38][39]
On 1 December 2014, the mission was in the area to "facilitate a local ceasefire and monitor the repair works on a power station", that it "heard an exchange of artillery fire between unspecified parties", and that "artillery rounds were impacting at approximately 1km to the east of the SMM's position; therefore the SMM left due to security concerns". Furthermore, the report states that the "SMM team in the JCCC was in constant contact with the SMM team in Staromikhailivka". No mention of a wounded observer is made.[40]
On 27 October 2015, a suspended OSCE monitor confirmed he had been a former employee of Russia's Main Intelligence Directorate. The suspended SMM stated that he had no trouble receiving the position and neither the OSCE nor Ukraine's Security Service thoroughly checked his background.[41] Following the report the OSCE issued a comment stating the monitor had been fired due to violations of the organization's code of conduct.[42]
On 6 April 2016, photos of OSCE monitors attending the wedding of a Russian separatist emerged. The wedding had taken place in June 2015. The OSCE expressed regret over the incident, issuing a statement saying "The unprofessional behaviour displayed by the monitors in the picture is an individual incident that should not be abused to cast a shadow on the reputation of other mission members." The OSCE reported that the monitors were no longer with the OSCE special monitoring mission.[43]
In April 2017, an OSCE vehicle struck a mine, which killed one SMM member and injured two.[44] Two armoured vehicles were on patrol near Luhansk when one struck the mine.[45] The dead man was an American paramedic, while the injured included a woman from Germany and a man from the Czech Republic.[45]
On 18 July 2018, the German broadcaster ARD reported that Russian intelligence services had received inside information about the activities of the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine from a staff member of the OSCE. The insider information consisted of observers' preferences in alcohol and women, their financial situation, and their contacts in Ukraine. The OSCE issued a statement expressing concern over the alleged security breach.[46]
Russia has accused members of the Mission of working for the Ukrainian SBU and of spying on the pro-Russian separatists.[47] Furthermore, Russia has accused the mission of bias after it reported troop movements from separatist forces, accusing the mission of ignoring similar moves from Ukraine.[48] Russia's foreign minister also has claimed that the mission failed to pay sufficient attention to human and minority rights within the Government-controlled areas of Ukraine. Furthermore, he criticised that the mission did not clearly attribute ceasefire violations to either side.[49]
2022 Mission to Armenia
An OSCE Needs Assessment Team was sent to Armenia between 21 and 27 October 2022 following the Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisis. The request was made by the government of Armenia. The OSCE sent international experts to monitor the Armenia–Azerbaijan border.[50]
OSCE involvement in Ukraine (2022–present)
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine began on February 24. The OSCE mandate in Ukraine expired on March 31, 2022, due to objections by Russia. On April 24, 2022, the OSCE protested the detention of four staff members in Donetsk and Luhansk, without specifying who had detained them.[51] On 20 September, two Ukrainian OSCE staffers were sentenced to 13 years of prison by a court in the Luhansk People's Republic for "alleged high treason and espionage for the United States."[52]
In March 2022, 45 participating States promoted, with the support of Ukraine, the activation of the Moscow Mechanism for the establishment of an independent expert mission on violations and abuses committed in the war of the Russian Federation, supported by Belarus, against Ukraine.[53][54] The report of the Mission of Experts was presented to the OSCE Permanent Council on 13 April 2022 and documented clear patterns of violations of international humanitarian law by the Russian Armed Forces in Ukraine.[55] OSCE/ODIHR continues to monitor the violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law in Ukraine.[56][57][58][59][60][61]
On 2 June 2022, the same 45 participating States invoked again the Moscow Mechanism to establish a new mission of experts to consider, follow up and build upon the findings of the Moscow Mechanism report published in April 2022.[62][63] The subsequent report, presented on 14 July 2022 to the OSCE Permanent Council, confirmed the outcomes of the previous mission and identified blatant violations of international humanitarian law, mainly attributable to the Russian armed forces, as well as widespread violations of human rights, especially in the territories under effective control of the Russian Federation.[64]
The Russian delegation was not invited to the 29th OSCE Ministerial Council in December 2022 where the delegates considered the ramifications and regional security challenges created by Russia's continued war against Ukraine. There were calls to assess the reparations that Russia should be accountable for.
Since the start of its invasion of Ukraine, Russia has seized €2.7 million worth of armored vehicles that were previously part of the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine. According to a letter that was sent by Russian OSCE representatives to OSCE Secretary-General Helga Schmid in January 2023, 71 trucks and cars were brought to the Luhansk People's Republic and the Donetsk People's Republic as "evidence" and criminal proceedings were initiated against former OSCE personnel for espionage.[65]
OSCE Parliamentary Assembly
In 2004, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly sent election observers to the U.S. presidential elections. The OSCE Parliamentary Assembly's president at the time was Democratic Congressman Alcee Hastings. Hastings had previously been impeached for corruption by the U.S. Congress. The OSCE faced criticism of partisanship and double standards due to Hastings's past and the fact that the OSCE's mandate was to promote democracy and the values of civil society.[66]
In 2010, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe was criticized from within by the Latvian delegation for lacking transparency and democracy. Spencer Oliver (b. 1938) secretary general of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, who held the post from the organization's inception in 1992 until 2015, faced a challenge from the Latvian Artis Pabriks. According to the rules of the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly, the incumbent general secretary can only be replaced with a full consensus minus one. Pabriks called the rules "quite shocking from the perspective of an organization that's monitoring elections".[67]
Synopsis and list of members
Languages
The six official languages of the OSCE are English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian.[68]
Participating states
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