Skythové - Wiki slovník

Skytové se svými luky, Kerč (starověký Pantikapaion), Krym, 4. století př. n. l.

Skytská obranná linie z roku 339 př. n. l., rekonstrukce v Polgáru v Maďarsku

Skytové (či Skýtové, Skythové, Skýthové, řecky Σκύθαι, další názvy Scyth, Saka, Sakae, Iskuzai, nebo Askuzai), je souhrnné pojmenování pro příslušníky kočovných kmenů obývajících ve starověku od 7. století př. n. l. do 3 století př. n. l.^[1] pontskou step ležící na značné části východní Evropy, přibližně území dnešní Ukrajiny a Ruska, popřípadě dalších států. Byly součástí širších skytských kultur, rozprostírajících se přes euroasijskou step, která zahrnovala mnoho národů, které se od Skytů odlišují. Z tohoto důvodu byl někdy používán rozsáhlejší koncept označující všechny rané euroasijské nomády jako „Skyty“. V rámci tohoto jsou skuteční Skytové různě označováni jako klasičtí Skytové, evropští Skytové, pontští Skytové nebo západní Skytové. Použití termínu „Skytové“ pro všechny rané euroasijské kočovníky však vedlo k velké záměně v literatuře a platnost této terminologie je sporná. Proto jsou pro tento koncept upřednostňována jiná jména.

Obecně se předpokládá, že měli Skytové íránský původ.^[2] Mluvili jazykem skytské větve východoíránských jazyků^[3] a praktikovali obdobu starověkého íránského náboženství. Patřili mezi první lidi, kteří ovládli vedení boje na koních^[4] a jako dominantní mocnost na pontské stepi vystřídali v 8. století př. n. l. Kimmerie.^[5] Během této doby Skytové a jejich příbuzné národy postupně ovládli celou euroasijskou stepi od Karpat na západě k náhorní plošině Ordos na východě^[6]^[7] a vytvořili takzvanou první středoasijskou nomádskou říši.^[5]^[8] Skytové na území současné Ukrajiny a jižního Ruska, sami sebe nazývali Scoloty a v čele vojenského svazu byl kmen tzv. královských Skytů, tvořící jádro skytské populace.

Podle některých zdrojů přišli Skytové do tohoto prostoru z území dnešního Kazachstánu a z jižní Sibiře, odkud byli vypuzeni jinou skupinou kmenů. Do 6. století př. n. l. ovládali Skytové také část severního Íránu. Polonomádští Sakové, náležející ke skythské skupině íránských národů, se usadili v Baktrii, v Tarimské pánvi a pronikli i na území Indie. Tato část Saků se stala známá jako Indoskythové.

V oblasti severně od Černého moře vytvořili silný kmenový svaz, který zahrnoval i kmeny usídlené zde již dříve. Toto území, které podle některých pozdějších antických a středověkých zdrojů označovalo celou východní Evropu, se nazývalo Skýtie (Skythie či Skytie, řecky Skythiá).

Od 6. století př. n. l. představovali Skytové značnou vojensko-politickou sílu, v 6. a 5. stol. př. n. l. tak pronikli ke Karpatům a do Sedmihradska. Roku 513 př. n. l. podnikl proti Skytům neúspěšné tažení perský král Dareios I. Později byli sami Skytové poraženi Thráky.

V polovině 4. stol. př. n. l. se na severním Krymu a při dolním Dněpru vytvořilo tzv. Skytské království, jehož pozdějším centrem se stalo krymské město Neapol. Ve 4. stol. př. n. l. se většiny Skýtie zmocnila nová skupina kmenů – Sarmaté. Ke konci 1. tisíciletí př. n. l. tak zůstalo v moci Skytů zhruba jen území skytského království. Skytové však nadále podnikali vojenské výpravy zaměřené zvláště proti řeckým obchodním osadám v severním Černomoří. Konflikty později vyvolávali i s římskými legiemi, zvláště pak na Krymu.

Po přelomu letopočtů tam křesťanskou víru podle legendy šířil apoštol Filip. V průběhu stěhování národů ve 3. století n. l. byla skytská moc vyvrácena Góty a následně Huny.

Válečnictví

Podle řeckého historika Hérodota praktikovali Skytové skalpování a lov lebek. Poraženým nepřátelům uřezávali hlavy a následně z nich strhávali skalpy, které vozili připevněné na sedlech svých koní. Lebky svých nepřátel používali jako číše k pití. Skytští válečníci si zdobili tělo tetováním. V boji používali otrávené šípy. Taktéž inspirovali legendy Řeků o Amazonkách, jelikož mezi nimi válčily i ženy.

Skythské kmeny

Skýtští válečníci

Agathyrsové
Alazonové
Kallipidové
Královští Skythové
Gelóni
Skythai Arotéres (řec.)
Skythai Borysthenés (řec.)
Skythai Geórgoi (řec.)
Budini (řec.)
Androphagoi (řec.)
Dahae (řec.)
Massagetové
Šakové

a další

Skytové a mezinárodní obchod

Výrobky haštalské kultury se dostaly ze střední a západní Evropy až na Kavkaz, a naopak výrobky maloasijských řemeslníků si našly cestu do Západní Evropy.^[9]

...píše A. P. Smirnov ve své knize a pokračuje:

V této vzájemné výměně sehrálo rozhodující úlohu skytské prostřednictví.^[9]

Ve skutečnosti byla obchodní trasa mnohem delší: sklo z Egypta se dostávalo až do haštalských Čech, kde se stalo vzorem pro místní výrobu (pokud považujeme haštalskou kulturu za součást Západu). Podstatné je, že z Egypta jsme dostávali skutečné sklo.^[10]

Odkazy

Reference

↑
- Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
- Cernenko 2012, s. 3 "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."
- Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians... "t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."
- Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th-4th centuries BCE (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see..."
- Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe... The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths", the Sauromatians, were also Iranian ; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."
- Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, s. 547 "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."
- West 2002, s. 437–440 "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe... These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."
- Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."
- Di Cosmo 1999, s. 924 "The firs historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."
- RICE, Tamara Talbot. Central Asian arts: Nomadic cultures . . Dostupné online. (anglicky)
↑
- Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin..."
- Harmatta 1996, s. 181 "oth Cimmerians and Scythians were Iranian peoples."
- Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi"..."
- West 2002, s. 437–440 "rue Scyths seems to be those whom calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."
- Rolle 1989, s. 56 "The physical characteristics of the Scythians correspond to their cultural affiliation: their origins place them within the group of Iranian peoples."
- Rostovtzeff 1922, s. 13 "The Scythian kingdom... was succeeded in the Russian steppes by an ascendancy of various Sarmatian tribes — Iranians, like the Scythians themselves."
- Minns 2011, s. 36 "The general view is that both agricultural and nomad Scythians were Iranian."
↑
- Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
- Davis-Kimball, Bashilov & Yablonsky 1995, s. 91 "Near the end of the 19th century V.F. Miller (1886, 1887) theorized that the Scythians and their kindred, the Sauromatians, were Iranian-speaking peoples. This has been a popular point of view and continues to be accepted in linguistics and historical science..."
- Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians..."
- Šablona:Harvtxt "All contemporary historians, archeologists and linguists are agreed that since the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes were of the Iranian linguistic group..."
- Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians..."
- Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."
↑ Scythian . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. . Dostupné online. (anglicky)
↑ ^a ^b HAMBLY, Gavin. History of Central Asia: Early Western Peoples . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. . Dostupné online. (anglicky)
↑ Beckwith 2009, s. 117 "The Scythians, or Northern Iranians, who were culturally and ethnolinguistically a single group at the beginning of their expansion, had earlier controlled the entire steppe zone."
↑ Beckwith 2009, s. 377–380 "The preservation of the earlier form. *Sakla. in the extreme eastern dialects supports the historicity of the conquest of the entire steppe zone by the Northern Iranians—literally, by the 'Scythians'—in the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age..."
↑ Beckwith 2009, s. 11
↑ ^a ^b SMIRNOV, A. P.,Skytové, Panorama: Praha 1980, str. 8
↑ Přednášky dr. Charváta na FFUK, letní semestr 1995/1996 Dostupné online

Literatura

Kol. autorů: Encyklopedie antiky. Academia, Praha 1973.
Smirnov, Alexej Petrovič: Skytové. Panorama, Praha 1980
Klučina, Petr - Romaňák, Andrej - Finková, Dagmar - Pokorná, Alevtina: Homo militaris. Válečnící starověku. Fragment, Havlíčkův Brod 1994. ISBN 80-85768-47-X

Související články

Externí odkazy

Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu Skythové na Wikimedia Commons
Heslo Scythian v encyklopedii Britannica

Zdroj:
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[Definition-1] 
Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."

Cernenko 2012, s. 3 "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."

Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians... "t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."

Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th-4th centuries BCE (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see..."

Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe... The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths", the Sauromatians, were also Iranian ; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."

Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, s. 547 "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."

West 2002, s. 437–440 "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe... These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."

Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."

Di Cosmo 1999, s. 924 "The firs historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."

RICE, Tamara Talbot. Central Asian arts: Nomadic cultures . . Dostupné online. (anglicky)

[2] Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."

[3] Cernenko 2012, s. 3 "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."

[4] Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians... "t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."

[5] Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th-4th centuries BCE (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see..."

[6] Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe... The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths", the Sauromatians, were also Iranian ; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."

[7] Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, s. 547 "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."

[8] West 2002, s. 437–440 "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe... These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."

[9] Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."

[10] Di Cosmo 1999, s. 924 "The firs historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."

[11] RICE, Tamara Talbot. Central Asian arts: Nomadic cultures . . Dostupné online. (anglicky)

[Iranian_Origin-2] 
Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin..."

Harmatta 1996, s. 181 "oth Cimmerians and Scythians were Iranian peoples."

Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi"..."

West 2002, s. 437–440 "rue Scyths seems to be those whom calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."

Rolle 1989, s. 56 "The physical characteristics of the Scythians correspond to their cultural affiliation: their origins place them within the group of Iranian peoples."

Rostovtzeff 1922, s. 13 "The Scythian kingdom... was succeeded in the Russian steppes by an ascendancy of various Sarmatian tribes — Iranians, like the Scythians themselves."

Minns 2011, s. 36 "The general view is that both agricultural and nomad Scythians were Iranian."

[13] Ivantchik 2018 "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin..."

[14] Harmatta 1996, s. 181 "oth Cimmerians and Scythians were Iranian peoples."

[15] Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi"..."

[16] West 2002, s. 437–440 "rue Scyths seems to be those whom calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony... apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock..."

[17] Rolle 1989, s. 56 "The physical characteristics of the Scythians correspond to their cultural affiliation: their origins place them within the group of Iranian peoples."

[18] Rostovtzeff 1922, s. 13 "The Scythian kingdom... was succeeded in the Russian steppes by an ascendancy of various Sarmatian tribes — Iranians, like the Scythians themselves."

[19] Minns 2011, s. 36 "The general view is that both agricultural and nomad Scythians were Iranian."

[Iranian_Speaking-3] 
Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."

Davis-Kimball, Bashilov & Yablonsky 1995, s. 91 "Near the end of the 19th century V.F. Miller (1886, 1887) theorized that the Scythians and their kindred, the Sauromatians, were Iranian-speaking peoples. This has been a popular point of view and continues to be accepted in linguistics and historical science..."

Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians..."

Šablona:Harvtxt "All contemporary historians, archeologists and linguists are agreed that since the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes were of the Iranian linguistic group..."

Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians..."

Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."

[21] Dandamayev 1994, s. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."

[22] Davis-Kimball, Bashilov & Yablonsky 1995, s. 91 "Near the end of the 19th century V.F. Miller (1886, 1887) theorized that the Scythians and their kindred, the Sauromatians, were Iranian-speaking peoples. This has been a popular point of view and continues to be accepted in linguistics and historical science..."

[23] Melykova 1990, s. 97–98 "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians..."

[24] Šablona:Harvtxt "All contemporary historians, archeologists and linguists are agreed that since the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes were of the Iranian linguistic group..."

[25] Sulimirski 1985, s. 149–153 "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock... The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians..."

[26] Jacobson 1995, s. 36–37 "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest-steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C... They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language..."

[EBScythian-4] Scythian . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. . Dostupné online. (anglicky)

[EBCentral_Asia-5] HAMBLY, Gavin. History of Central Asia: Early Western Peoples . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. . Dostupné online. (anglicky)

[Beckwith117-6] Beckwith 2009, s. 117 "The Scythians, or Northern Iranians, who were culturally and ethnolinguistically a single group at the beginning of their expansion, had earlier controlled the entire steppe zone."

[Beckwith377-7] Beckwith 2009, s. 377–380 "The preservation of the earlier form. *Sakla. in the extreme eastern dialects supports the historicity of the conquest of the entire steppe zone by the Northern Iranians—literally, by the 'Scythians'—in the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age..."

[Beckwith11-8] Beckwith 2009, s. 11

[obchod-9] SMIRNOV, A. P.,Skytové, Panorama: Praha 1980, str. 8

[10] Přednášky dr. Charváta na FFUK, letní semestr 1995/1996 Dostupné online

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